Kate Cooper Case Essay

Green Meadows Hospital is newly constructed community hospital owned by Southern Hospitals Corporation. Kate Cooper was very excited when she got a new position at Green Meadows as a Manager of Adult Services. They started hiring people and were getting ready to open the hospital. However, things did not go well as they planned and wanted to. Therefore, Kate had to resign. The biggest problem that I see in this was their unorganized management skills and communications skills. They should have more prepared since they were new hospital and related to people’s lives but from the beginning, it seemed like they did not think that it was a big of deal and just went it the flow. Communications at Green Meadows Hospital is more likely one way communication. It started out with 2 way communication model somehow, but it ended up having just one way communication model. At first, Alan seemed like he understood Kate’s situation and encouraged her with her getting higher education and seemed like he was going to be a strong supporter. However, it didn’t really work out. It was always him giving her too much work when even she told him that she does not think that she can handle all the responsibilities and works due to her duties and school. Also, There were never really clear communication or/and understanding among Doug, Alan, and Kate. 2 way communication model would have fixed their problems. Even though one way communication is a lot easier and faster, using 2 way communication is more accurate, can make fewer mistakes, and will have fewer problems. They could have asked questions to each other, talk about concerns, and even make suggestions or modifications if they needed to. That would have helped them to understand each other, information that they should know about, and what is being communicated. This could have help them to share information effectively and the team could have performed better. I would have to say that Doug and Alan both have the SIL style of between S1 and S2. They both are somewhat directing and coaching at the same time. They seem like they are listening to their followers but the result shows us that they didn’t really. At first he seemed like he was very encouraging and supporting his followers and he turned out to be very selfish and self-centered leader. To be a S3 or S4 leaders, they need to listen to their followers more since they are working with their patients directly and might know better than them. However, decisions were never made with the followers, instead the leaders made most of the decisions and just announced it. On the other hand, Kate is in the level of D2. She has had some experiences as a charge nurse and a house supervisor. Kate has some relevant skills with the new position but since she was new to this position and to the hospital, she needed some help from her leaders. I would say Peter is in the level of D4. He just knew what he was doing and seemed like very confidence of what he was doing but like Alan, he was very selfish, seemed like he always thought about himself first instead thinking about the team as a whole. To help Kate and Peter, they could change their leaderships to S3. I think S4 would be too much for everyone with this situation, but having 2 way communication, when making decisions followers can be involved, but still the leaders can make the final decisions. Instead of Doug and Alan telling Kate and Peter what to do, they all can be involved and talk about what is going on at the hospital and talk about it to make it better or make a better decisions. Kate and Peter will more feel like they are important and will be more motivated and perform better. First theory is expectancy theory. If people put their effort into something and they perform to get the result. Between putting effort and performing they think that their effort will make them to attain their goals. Also between their performance and outcome, they expect specific result. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy is the next theory. People have to have the low level of needs to have higher needs. Also once a need is satisfied, it is not a powerful motivator anymore. Third is Alderfer’s ERG Theory. This theory is somewhat similar to Maslow’s theory but slightly different. It has three sets of needs: existence, relatedness, and growth. Unlike Maslow’s law ERG theory states that several different needs can be done at once and at the same time because they are all connected. This can either motivate or demotivate people. They should use ERG theory to prevent managers like Kate from resigning. Environment like hospitals should have existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs at the same time. They do not have time to wait for one thing to get done and go onto another. At the hospital they work with people. They should respect each other, not just respect the leaders but also leaders should respect the followers. And also they should have relationship that includes all the employees and share their thoughts, discuss problems together, and try to find the solutions together. And people need some kind of motivations to work better with other people, be productive, or perform better. These can happen all at once. However, Kate did not get any respect from her co-worker or her leaders and also did not have any motivations. Alan just kept pushing her to the edge. He did not even ask her opinion and told her what to do. Again, there was no communication between them and that was the main problem tha t they had. a. Absence of Trust – At first, they trust each other, but as time goes by, they didn’t really talk about the problems. They didn’t even try to help each other out. They didn’t talk about when Alan behaved unprofessionally and inappropriately. No body was really getting along well. b. Fear of Conflicts – They should have worked as a team but seems like to me they were just working as an individual. They didn’t respect each other, didn’t care about each other, and ignore some issues that they were having. They didn’t really try to fix problems but just covered up when they should have talked about Alan’s behavior or Peter taking Kate’s orientation dates. c. Lack of Commitment – Since they don’t trust each other, don’t respect each other, it led them to have lack of commitment. No body really knew what they were really doing. Everyone was on their owns. There were no priorities, no directions, and had same problems over and over again: Kate having too much responsibilities and work). d. Avoidance of Accountability – Alan always gave Kate way too much work that she cannot even handle them. Alan and Dough were supposed to be communicating each other and lead them team but even they did not really communicate well and resulted in Alan overstepping Doug’s positions. e. Inattention to results – Because of all of the above, it got to the point where Kate was told that she had to quit school. This clearly shows how Alan’s leadership style and ethics were very wrong. I would say, right now they are in the Storming stage. It is the stage when hostilities and conflicts arise, and people jockey for positions of power and status. They can’t go on to the next stage that is Norming stage if they can’t solve the problems. Peter and Alan being selfish and having a self-centered leadership, having no communication among the team members, giving too much work and all the responsibilities to one manager, leader’s unprofessional/inappropriate behavior should be all solved for them to continue to the Norming stage. At Norming stage, the team members share their ideas, thought, goals, and develop closer relationship, which will lead them to perform better, and success as a whole. For Green Meadows Hospital, the most needed solution is communication. Communication is always important in any kind of situation. If they start communicating as a team, having regular meetings that will build their trust. Trust is also important factor but with out communication, it can’t be built. The leaders should have a heart for the company, should be able to motivate their followers, and should have right ethics. Leaders should not have any deception, fear, pride, or greed. Alan showed a lot of greed and deception in this case (telling Kate to quit school, unprofessional behaviors, not following his leader†¦etc). Of course it is important to have great leadership skills but without a heart, they will have no followers. To have faithful, committed followers, then leaders should do it first.

Case Study †Motivation Essay

Introduction In this brief introduction, advice for James on how to motivate his Year 5 teachers will be framed by explaining the nature of goal, the dimension of the goal and how it should be set. Secondly, suggestions of the selection of Year 5 teacher will be given. Furthermore, various ways of rewarding the goal achievement will be mentioned while evaluating the role of James during the academic year and the application of goal setting. In addition, unintended consequences of the goal setting methods will be discussed and follow by a conclusion. Nature of goal, Dimension of the goal and how it should be set Refers to Locke (1990 and 1996), goal is an object or aim for an action is the definition of goal and it is something consciously want. Goal can be explained by internal and external factors , goals are thoughts with desired end internally and object or conditions sought externally while a job to be completed is as known as task (Locke 1990 and 1996). In this case, the goal of James is to boost his school average result in NAPLAN test (i.e. the 5 reporting sector ) therefore it is above the national average while the task is to select an appropriate teacher that is able to improve the results of the 5 reporting factors. Dimension of goals can be divided content and intensity and they are not easily separated (Locke 1990). Goal content means the actual object sought and psychological goal that an individual have (Locke 1990 and 1996). Content differs in qualitatively and quantitatively and degree of specificity (Locke 1990). A positive relationship between goal difficulties and performance is founded, the harder the goal is, the better the achievement (Locke 1996). The second factor is intensity. Intensity refers to the depth of the goal, such as scope and integration of the goal setting process and the importance of the goal, etc (Locke1990). Goals can be set according to S.M.A.R.T. which means that goals must be specific, measurable, assignable, realistic and time-related (Rouillard 2003). A specific goal should be details enough to mention what is to be achieved and accomplished, too general statement is insufficient to motive workers (Rouillard 2003).A goal should be measurable which is quantifiable and provide a standard for comparison while indicate whether the goal is reached (Rouillard 2003). Thirdly, an attainable goal should be able to achievable while challenging, a goal with extreme low and  high expectation is insufficient to motivate (Rouillard 2003). Realistic goal means it is practical, possible and achievable (Rouillard 2003). Time-related means to frame the goal with a given period, an out-dated goal has no effect on motivat ion (Rouillard 2003). In this case, James can set a goal like ‘improve 75% of year 5 students results with a grade improvement in the factors of reading, writing, spelling, grammar and punctuation and numeracy within one semester (6 months)’. Access of candidates In this case, the aim is to improve the students’ results therefore teacher effectiveness is the main consideration. Teacher effectiveness is a measure of teacher’s ability to produce an academic growth in a given context and situation (Stronge and Hindman 2006 and Bailey 2006). Various sectors are needed for evaluation. (i) Knowledge/ Teaching certification Richard has the highest degree compare to others and Richard is passionate about upgrading himself to a higher level. Moreover, Richard is familiar with the updated education syllabus as he has completed his bachelor degree few years ago. No specific information about Janice’s educational background is mentioned; it is assumed she has the lowest degree among candidates. Although Janice had attended some teacher training, she is not familiar and active about the updated educational changes and practices which makes her less competitive. Ivar has deep knowledge about psychology and enjoy high degree of reputation and he is a high achieving student which shows Ivar has adequate intelligence level. Refers to Mandeville and Liu cited in Campbell et al (2012), students who are taught by higher levels of teacher certification have better thinking skills and performance than the lower level of knowledge. From the above evaluation, Richard and Ivar are more knowledgeable. (ii) Personal ity Richard is young, enthusiastic, active, ambitious and competitive; Janice is mature, sociable with good personal skills, passionate but less active than Richard and Ivar is logical and rational but not good at communication. Personality is not suggested as a standard for selection as there is no direct relationship between personality and achievement of pupils (Borich cited in Campbell et al 2012 ). More factors should be considered. (iii)  Experience Richard has few years of teaching year 2 and 3 but lack of experience on teaching year 5 and 6; Janice has the most experience among 3 of them and she has 5 years experience on Year 5. Comparing to others, Ivar has the least experience in teaching. Teaching experience is a valuable access however there is no direct relationship between experience and student achievement and teaching experience is only a predictor of student outcomes occasionally (Anderson and Doresett cited in Campbell et al 2012). More factors should be concern. (iv) Self –efficacy ‘A belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to produce given attainment ‘is called self efficacy (Bandura cited in Campbell et al 2012). Richard and Ivar are very confident about teaching year 5 while Janice is less confident about her skills. It is suggested that students that taught by higher self –efficacy perform better on standardized test and teachers with low self-efficacy have lower expectation of students (Moore and Esselman cited in Campbell et al 2012) . To improve the grade of NAPLAN, advancement of languages and maths are necessary and a teacher with higher self-efficacy is critical as there is positive relationship between self efficacy and the performance of languages and maths of the students (Anderson et al cited in Campbell et al 2012). From the perspective of goal setting theory, an individual with high self efficacy is more willing to set and accept a harder goal while commit to the goals with eff ort (Locke 1996). Richard and Ivar are the better choice. After accessing the above criteria, Richard and Ivar are the better choice since both of them are highly educated and with high self efficacy but Richard is the best choice. Ivar is not specialist in education which shows concern of insufficient knowledge of educational practices while Richard has a better educational knowledge. Refers to Darling-Hammond cited in Campbell et al (2012) , the strongest forecaster of relative achievement compared to others is teacher’s certification therefore Richard will be a better choice based on the element of knowledge. Methods to reward goal achievement The goal cannot be reached by one party’s effort therefore Richard and students should be rewarded. Financial rewards and non-financial rewards are suggested and James should integrate them as a complete reward process in order to work more effectively (Armstrong and Murlis 2007). (i) Financial rewards Merit pay program can be used once Richard reaches the goal. Merit pay is a system that increases the base salary of the employee who achieves the objectives of the business (Snell and Bohlander 2012). James should raise Richard‘s salary with a range of 7 to 9% in order to be motivate (Snell and Bohlander 2012). Financial rewards have no significant in students’ achievement thus financial reward is more appropriate for teachers (Robin 2012). From individual aspect, the increased salary allows Richard to satisfy various needs, such as; help his school fee for his master degree. Richard is competitive, while the financial reward is a tangible form of achievement recognition that satisfies his needs of ego and self- actualization (Armstrong and Murlis 2007). For school, the financial rewards enhance motivation, Richard is more willing to stay in the school and this benefits the school from retaining talents to teach Year 5 students (Armstrong and Murlis 2007). (ii) Non fina ncial rewards Non financial rewards are more effective in motivating (Armstrong and Murlis 2007). James can reward Richard by providing recognition, such as verbally reward with positive feedback, promotion and training and development. James can reward the students by praising the classes and providing extra-circular activities for students to relax and learn. Richard has his own mind in career progression, rewards such as promotion, allows him to reach his individual goal (to have a better career).If Richard is rewarded with training, more knowledge will be received and allow him to have a well preparation for his master degree. Non financial rewards shows recognition which reinforce Richard’s self esteem and self actualization. For the school, non financial rewards bring lasting motivation which maintains Richard’s motivation to work in the school and dedicate more effort for his teaching of Year 5 students. (Armstrong and Murlis 2007) The rewards  motivate the Year 5 students t o study hard in order to get a better result in NAPLAN. James’s role According to managerial competency framework by Quinn, several roles from the framework are selected for James in the application of this case. James is a director, he has to develop a vision and set a clear goal and objectives for his teachers moreover he has to organize and design the whole plan to achieve the goal (Quinn et al 2003). Secondly, James is a mentor, he has to communicate effectively and share his knowledge of NAPLAN with Richard to develop his ability in teaching Year 5 students (Quinn et al 2003). James has to think creatively as he may have to draft new teaching strategies with Richard therefore he has to live and mange the change and his role in this process is innovator (Quinn et al 2003). James is also a co-coordinator, new ideas may suggested by Richard and James has to manage the projects and across the functions to ensure the Richard’s works can run smoothly (Quinn et al 2003).Finally, James is a monitor, performances of students should be reviewed regu larly to keep the process on track while teaching styles should be monitored, for example, James can be a guest teacher in Richard’s class to see how the class runs and provides feedback to Richard (Quinn et al 2003, Mitchell, Ortiz, and Mitchell 1987). Feedback drives performance and motivation therefore feedback should be given frequently, James is able to check the progress of the goal while Richard is able to improve his limitations or retain his advantages (Latham 2007). Unintended consequences  Harder goals drive performance therefore James may set a harder goal for Richard and his year 5 students to achieve (Latham 2007). A harder goal is associated higher risk which may lead to worse performance compare to lower goals, for instance, a harsher teaching style is adopted by Richard but students may face extra pressure and lost their motivation in learning (Latham 2007). Secondly, goal conflicts may happen, such as, the school’s goal is vary from Richard’s individual goal which reduce the motivation and worsen the performance (Latham 2007). In order to reach the goal, James has to co-ordinate with other teachers with the class arrangement, this may lead to disagreement about the decision and conflicts between colleagues may result. With the new class arrangement, other classes need to adopt a new  teacher or teaching style; it influences the academic results and motivation. Others teachers also need to cope with the new goal and assi st Richard and principal in some points yet they do not get any reward, it leads to the problem of unfairness and inequality. Conclusion To conclude, goal and task are strongly linked and dimension of goal is divided into content and intensity. A successful goal should be set according to S.M.A.R.T. After evaluation, Richard is chosen as the teacher. James could motive Richard and students by financial and non financial rewards. Within the process, James has multiple roles as mention before to ensure the goal is achieved. However, unexpected results may happen therefore James should consider more theories application solve the problem and achieve synergy. Reference list Armstrong, M. and Murlis, H. 2007, Reward Management: A Handbook of Remuneration Strategy and Practice, 5th ed., Kogan Page Publishers, U.K. Bailey, K. 2006, Language Teacher Supervision: A case Based Approach, Cambridge University Press, U.K. Campbell, J., Kyriakides, L., Nuijis, D. and Robinson, W. 2012, Assessing Teacher Effectiveness: Different Models, Routledge, Canada. Latham, G. 2007, Work Motivation. History.Theory.Research and Practice, Thousand Oaks, U.K. Locke, E. 1996, ‘Motivation through conscious goal setting’, Applied and Preventative Psychology, vol.5, pp. 117-124. Locke, E. and Latham, G. 1990, A theory of Goal setting and Task Performance, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Mitchell, D., Ortiz, F. and Mitchell, T. 1987, Work Orientation and Job Performance: The Cultural Basis of Teaching Rewards and Incentives, Suny Press, U.S.A. Robin, G. 2012, Praise, Motivation, and the Child, Routledge, U.S.A. Rouillard,L. 2003, Goals and Goal Setting: Achieving Measured Ob jectives, 3rd ed., Cengage Learning, U.S.A. Snell, S. and Bohlander,G. 2012, Managing Human Resources, Cengage Learning, U.S.A. Stronge, J. and Hindman, J. 2006, The Teacher Quality Index: A Protocol for Teacher Selection, ASCD, U.S.A. Quinn, R.E., Faerman,S.R., Thompson,M.P. and McGrath,M. 2003, Becoming a master manager: A competency framework, 3rd ed., Wiley, New York.

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Credibility and Uses of Psychological Experimental Evidence

Credibility and Uses of Psychological Experimental Evidence Abstract Experimental psychology is the aspect of psychological science that explores the human mind and its perceptions and behaviors through experimental methodologies and subsequent interpretation of the obtained results. Again, â€Å"evidence-based practice in psychology is the integration of the best available research with clinical expertise in the context of patient characteristics, culture, and preferences† (American Psychologist, 2006). This definition is in line with the one advocated by the Institute of Medicine (2001) that says, â€Å"Evidence-based practice is the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values† (Sackett, Straus, Richardson, Rosenberg, Haynes, 2000, p. 147). Experimental psychological research makes use of controlled conditions in experiments to conclude about the validity of a hypothesis and evidence-based practice in psychology constitutes a large part of it. This essay attempts to discuss the various experimental evidences used in psychology and form an opinion on the usefulness and credibility of those evidences. How Good is Psychological Experimental Evidence Evidences from experimental psychology are of interest to researchers working on human behavior, brain mechanics, neurology, and so on; regardless of where these are performed either within the laboratory or outside of it, human beings form the major part of the experiment. The primary goals of experimental psychological research are to be most cost effective, improve quality and increase accountability. However, the psychological community—including both scientists and practitioners—is concerned that evidence-based practice initiatives not be misused as a justification for inappropriately restricting access to care and choice of treatments (American Psychologist, 2006). Experimental psychology and its psychological approaches broadly deal with psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and cognitive psychology. Since psychoanalysis explores the mind and explains its behavior, it is of prime importance; that said, it has been argued that psychoanalysis is overrated, as it is only able to explain the behavior after it has occurred and not make any helpful advance predictions. Behaviorism explains a wide range of behaviors from language usage to moral values using the principles of behavior shaping, generalization, reinforcement etc. Behaviorists were able to come up with moderately consistent predictions but absolute predictions for individuals was not possible. Cognitive psychology, on the other hand, follows a very scientific approach to explain primarily non-discernable mental processes through experiments and models. The empirical approach to psychology is questioned by the advocates of the humanistic approach who lay emphasis on individual conscious experience and disregard experimental evidence. They stress on subjective perception and understanding rather than objective reality. The argument put forward by the humanists says that human behavior is the sum of one’s feelings and aura, and is shaped by the perception and understanding of one’s environment. Thus, humanists contend the experimentalists on the premise that a perspective of the whole person is important to settle on any outcome; one should look through the ‘observer’ lens as well as the ‘observed’ lens. The humanists are advocates of free will and reject determinism; they do not support scientific approach and are not concerned with predictions and control over human behavior. The right of the individual to control and dissect one’s own behavior is endorsed by humanists. In ‘Psychology as a Means of Promoting Human Welfare’, Miller criticizes the controlling view of psychology, suggesting that â€Å"understanding should be the main goal of the subject as a science, as he asks, who will do the controlling and whose interests will be served by it? â€Å" (Miller, 1969). Psychological experimental evidence can be valid in evidence based practice as it gives a data point on the theories that are being explored. It is about integrating individual clinical expertise and the best external evidence (Sackett, Straus, Richardson, Rosenberg, Haynes, 1996). Thus the external evidence provided by scientific approach like statistical methods is helpful in making deductions that in turn assist in forming the foundation for evidence based medicine. An experiment by Cathy Faulkner, to substantiate the use of confidence intervals for estimation is a case in point. In her study, she â€Å"asked a group of leading clinical researchers to think of a clinical trial that they have designed and then to think of the most central question in the trial. 81% of the respondents thought that it was – is there an effect? Then she asked them to rate the importance of three possible questions: 1) is there an effect? (2) How large is the effect, and (3) how clinically imp ortant is the effect? Given those prompts her expert respondents rated all three as highly important. In other words, their first response was influenced by their automatic dichotomous thinking but when prompted they immediately recognized that a trial psychological therapy is only useful if it tells us how large an effect the therapy is likely to give and how clinically important that is. So, estimation, meaning confidence intervals, is what we need for fullest information about the size of an effect and the best basis for assessing its clinical importance† (Cumming, 2012). The value of experimental evidence lies in the fact that it is able to provide a basis for future research and enable replication of the same, wherein a number of psychologists, after skillful experimentation would come up with similar answers. For example, in experiments on effects of drug habits, the experimental results would almost always validate stress as a consequence of drug abuse. Thus by replication of results and consequent corroboration of facts, a theory is likely to gain acceptance. Nonetheless, the limitations of the empirical approach following a specific scientific methodology are many: Since psychology deals mostly with humans, and no two human conditions can be the same, the results are never absolute. Moreover, human behavior changes with time and so would the results of experiments. In establishing causes for incidents, psychologists take the deterministic view and discount the peripheral variables that influence human behavior and ones they have no control over. Also the range of paradigms in psychology makes it difficult to advocate a universal law for any occurrence/observation. Again, since most of the parameters are unobservable, like memory, and some immeasurable, testability becomes an issue in such experiments. â€Å"Whenever psychologists involved in research or practice move from observations to inferences and generalizations, there are inherent risks of idiosyncratic interpretations, overgeneralizations, confirmatory biases, and similar errors in judgment† (Dawes, Faust, Meehl, 2002). Objectivity is almost impossible in some cases. Thus, integral to use of psychological experimental evidence and â€Å"clinical expertise is an awareness of the limits of one’s knowledge and skills and attention to the heuristics and biases— both cognitive and affective—that can affect clinical judgment† (American Psychologist, 2006). Judgmental errors and volatility of psychological experimentation is exhibited clearly in the 1971 Stanford prison experiment led by researcher Phillip Zimbardo, held in the basement of the psychology building at Stanford University. The objective of this experiment was to test a hypothesis on prison behavior, how captivity influences and changes an individual’s response and behavior. Zimbardo and his team wanted to find out if the cause of abusive behavior in prisons was the inherent personality traits of the prison officials. The participants of the prison simulation experiment, including Zimbardo himself got so engrossed in the characters they were playing (after sessions of de-individualization, disorientation and de-personalization) that it turned dangerous for the them and they were forced to stop it after 6 days. However, it was concluded that the situation is the biggest influence on a person’s behavior rather than the individual’s character. The Stanford prison experiment was an eye opener for ethical issues regarding psychological experiments using living subjects. It led to creation of better safeguards for the participants and meticulous scrutiny before embarking on experiments. It became imperative to demonstrate the necessity of the experiment and show how it would contribute to the advancement of psychology, and also provide clear option of opting out of the set up if it gets uncomfortable for the subject. Concerns on informed consent have also been dealt with to uphold the safety and health of subjects. Several other pioneering experiments like Stanley Milgram’s Obedience to authority experiment in 1974, Ivan Pavlov’s classical Conditioning experiment way back in 1903, Henry Harlow’s Emotional Attachment in rhesus monkeys have employed living subjects; the answerability thus automatically escalates when using such participants. In conclusion, it is clear that psychological experimental evidence plays an integral part in the progress of psychology; however, the researcher needs to strike a balance and critically decide on the need for empirical approach in preference to humanistic approach. Studies designed to investigate the credibility of psychological theories and explain certain behavior patterns by isolating situational controls using living subjects (human or animal) need to be handled with utmost care and precaution. The researcher should be in a position to adequately address any ethical issues that might arise out of the experimental set up. It is to be borne in mind that humans are prone to error and judgment might be prejudiced in some cases; it is important to be prepared for these contingencies. To tackle the concerns from humanists and warrant the use of experimental evidence, Slife and Williams (1995)have suggested: †¢ We need to try at least to strive for scientific methods because we need a rigorous discipline. If we abandon our search for unified methods, well lose a sense of what psychology is. †¢ We need to keep trying to develop scientific methods that are suitable to studying human behavior it may be that the methods adopted by the natural sciences are not appropriate for us. References American Psychologist, Vol 61(4), May-Jun 2006, 271-285. Cumming, G. (2012, June). Australian Psychological Society. Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://www.psychology.org.au/inpsych/2012/june/cumming/ Dawes, R. M., Faust, D., Meehl, P. E. (2002). Clinical versus actuarial judgment. In T. Gilovich D. Griffin (Eds.), Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment (pp. 716 –729). New York: Cambridge University Press. Institute of Medicine. (2001).Crossing the quality chasm: A new health system for the 21st century. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Miller, George A. Psychology as a means of promoting human welfare. American Psychologist, Vol 24(12), Dec 1969, 1063-1075. Sackett, D. L., Straus, S. E., Richardson, W. S., Rosenberg, W., Haynes, R. B. (2000). Evidence based medicine: How to practice and teach EBM (2nd ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W. M., Gray, J. A., Haynes, R. B., Richardson, W. S. (1996). Evidence based medicine: What it is and what it isn’t. British Medical Journal, 312, 71–72.

The Polemic about Tattoos :: essays research papers fc

The polemic about tattoos I was wondering why tattoos are a controversial point in our society! There are people against and people that really like tattoos, but who is right? Should I think it is a good or a bad thing? Maybe for the tattooists the art involves is worth the pain and sacrifice of being tattooed. For the religious, it is a sin to sacrifice one’s body with so meaningless purpose. Now I don’t think there are excuses to justify so drastic a way of art, but analyzing the points of view I will try to clarify some questions I still have about this body art such as the reason people have tattoos, â€Å"When did tattooing start?†, the dangers involved in this procedure, the removal of a tattoo and society’s reaction to tattooed persons. Thinking it is weird to have one’s body penetrated many times by a needle to make only a drawing I do not think is worth it. So, why do people have tattoos? Why it is a common place nowadays? Probably because people see that the tattoo is a way of expression, but the real motivation to acquire it varies among groups and cultures. It marks thoughts, opinions, memories†¦Some persons obtains tattoos as a means of asserting their personal identity or sexual orientation. Tattoos may be a testament to feelings of love, they have been associated with rites of passage and identification with groups. Nowadays tattoos is used for some cosmetic medical procedures and permanent make-up applications, according to the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences’ web site. Some women seek facial tattooing as method of permanent adornment that reduces the need of cosmetics, what can be helpful when, for example, a compromised vision impairs the ability to apply make-up. Talking with a friend who likes a lot of body art, Manoela Cunha, she said: â€Å"I like tattoos because they make me feel â€Å"the one†! There is no one else in the world like me it is a way of identification†. She adds: â€Å"It is not a rebellion of thoughts, it’s just something I like and I really don’t care about other peoples judgment†. She said it is not a painful thing, none of her 3 tattoos and her piercing hurt, and she is planning to get others. Analyzing the past, I can see it is not a recent thing. I read once in a web site about frequently asked

The Missed Fly Ball :: Personal Narrative Essays

The Missed Fly Ball    It was only a fly ball, but I missed it.   I missed a fly ball in the final baseball game my 3rd grade year .   It was a beautiful day, a few clouds covering the extremely blue summer sky.   It was very hot. I remember this because of the tremendous amount of sweat that would run down my face while I stood out in right field.   When I heard that crack of the bat, all I could hope for was that the ball would not come my direction.   I have never had good luck, so the ball was coming right for me.   I didn't even have to move, all I did was put my glove in the air and again hope it hit my glove.   It did hit the glove but bounced right out and behind me.   Now all there was to do was pick up the ball and throw it.   It was not this simple for me.   I turned around, bent down for the ball, and after the third try successfully grabbed it and stood back up and prepared to throw.   Well the first thing that came to mind was just to fling it up in the air and hope it makes it to somebody around the base runner.   Considering my previous luck, I just threw it to the first basemen.   The throw was not any better then the catch.   It landed 5 feet short and by the time the first basemen recovered the runner had rounded third base and was at least halfway home.   The runner did score on a close play at the plate.   The run gave the other team a two run advantage going into the sixth inning, which was the last in midget league.   I knew at this point I was going to have a hard time facing the other guys on the team after this big let down.   It also made me decide to quit baseball all together.   Since quitting baseball at such a early age I missed on the opportunity to take part in what could have, at one time, been considered America's Pastime.    Once a few years later I started to learn how to play basketball for the first time.   It was just a few friends and myself down at the park shooting hoops.   I wasn't terrible, considering I had never really played before.   We played a few games of Horse and a few other simple shooting games.   I wasn't the best but I wasn't always last.   I was doing good until someone suggested we play twenty-one.

Abortion: A Religious Issue Essays -- essays research papers fc

Abortion: A Religious Issue   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the toughest issues to debate in our world today is abortion. Abortion is the induced termination of pregnancy before the fetus can survive. Nowadays, abortion affects all people, not just the mother and the baby. There are moral, ethical, health-related, political, and religious aspects that affect how people feel towards abortion. By looking at religion and its views, one can see just how hard it would be to argue in the pro-choice position of this debate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First of all, I must start with the truth†¦the Bible does not directly say anything about abortion. The actual word is not mentioned at all. During biblical times, abortion was an unthinkable act and â€Å"there was no need to mention it in the criminal code† (Anderson 1). â€Å"Children were viewed as a gift or heritage from the Lord†¦ the Scriptures state†¦that God opens and closes the womb and is sovereign over conception† (Anderson 1). In this sense, â€Å"childlessness was seen as a curse† (Anderson 1). Passages taken from the Bible are used as supporting details because they state indirectly how God feels towards the issue. Before Christ was born, however, opinions differed towards abortion. Unwanted children were destroyed through abortion and infanticide because the Romans and Greeks thought human life was neither sacred nor inviolate (Ayd 48). In fact, Aristole claimed â€Å"that all babies beyond a legally defined quota should be sentenced to death by exposure† (Ayd 48). However, there were some people who objected this inhumanity. â€Å"Hippocrates declared that physicians should not perform or enable a women to procure an abortion† (Ayd 48). Even though there were laws against the act, people ignored them and continued to perform the procedure as if it was nothing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Then God became man, and man was created in God’s image. The Bible says that man is not the owner of his life and body, and the uses he can make of these are limited and governed by divine law (Ayd 48). The entire will of God is for man to come to know Him in a personal relationship so that he may spend eternity in Heaven. This is why there is life on Earth. If one can go through the trials and temptations of life and stay on the side of the Lord, then he is deemed worthy to go to Heaven. By following through with an abortion, the u... ...holic Churches will continue to teach that the Bible and God are against abortion. There will also be many people who will oppose this teaching because of their own opinions and beliefs. No matter how people feel towards the issue of abortion, we must remember that the entire procedure is between the mother and the fetus. Both need to be taken into consideration when making a decision, and it is not hard to see where one might be led once reading the Bible.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is just one thing I do not understand. Whatever happened to the Golden Rule: Do unto others as you would have them do unto you? As Dr. Irvine Page says, â€Å" Life has a way of taking revenge on those who destroy it† (Ayd 51). Works Cited Anderson, Kerby. â€Å"Arguments Against Abortion.† 2000: 19 February 2001 . Ayd, Frank J., M.D. â€Å"Abortion: The Catholic Viewpoint.† Abortion: Changing Views And Practice. Ed. R. Bruce Sloane, M.D. New York: Grune and Stratton, Inc, 1971. 48-52. Bible- New International Version Scwarz, Stephen D. The Moral Question of Abortion. Chicago: Loyola University Press,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1990.

Kate Chopin Essay

Who comes to mind when the term â€Å"American author† is mentioned? A lot of female authors of today would say Kate Chopin, one of the most independent writers of the nineteenth century. Although Kate Chopin didn’t live to see her work re-published, she is an important author to study because her stories are influential, her ambition arouses her readers, and her point of view supports independent women. Unlike most of the women during her time period, Chopin didn’t agree on letting the men be in control. After a couple of her stories were published in Vogue Magazine, like â€Å"Desiree’s Baby† and â€Å"A Pair of Silk Stockings†, people began to start liking Chopin’s short stories (Powell). Vogue had even quoted how they â€Å"admired her brains and beauty† (Powell). It wasn’t until Chopin decided to give more of her belief of independence and write her first novel â€Å"The Awakening† for people of that time to start disliking her. Publishers cited what they considered â€Å"promotion of female self-assertion and sexual liberation† (Chopin, Kate – Introduction). Libraries banned Chopin and her friends shunned her as her reputation started to fall. Kate Chopin may influence women today, but during her social period she wasn’t looked upon by many. Born into a prominent St. Louis family, Chopin was influenced by her mother and great-grandmother after the death of her father. Her family descended from French-Creole pioneers and that also influenced her to be involved with music, school, and arts (Kate Chopin: The Awakening, The Storm, Stories, Biography). Chopin graduated from a convent school at age seventeen (Kate Chopin). In 1870 she married Oscar Chopin, who was also Creole descent, and they had six children. His death in 1883 was when Kate Chopin decided to become more serious about writing (Kate Chopin). She sold all the land her and her husband owned and moved back to St. Louis with her mother. Family friends who found her letters entertaining encouraged her to â€Å"write professionally† (Chopin, Kate – Introduction). Chopin started writing short stories and eventually began having her stories published in periodicals. Popular American periodicals published Kate Chopin, such as America, Vogue, and the Atlantic (Powell). Her collections â€Å"Bayou Folk† and â€Å"A Night in Acadie† made her reputation grow as an important colorist at the time (Chopin, Kate – Introduction). Chopin started writing about her husband’s death and her response to it. After trying to publish â€Å"The Awakening† she was immediately rejected because during the time it wasn’t appropriate. The novel subjected as female sexuality and adultery (Chopin, Kate – Introduction). Her reputation declined greatly after that and Chopin wanted to give up on writing all together. Now that all her work is republished, people find it very inspiring, especially women. Critics today say that â€Å"her work is focused on the pioneering use of psychological realism, symbolic imagery, and sensual themes† (Chopin, Kate – Introduction). A large amount of female writers today are encouraged by Chopin’s short stories, novels, and essays. One of Kate Chopin’s most famous short stories is â€Å"The Story of an Hour†. The main character, Mrs. Mallard finds out her husband just died. She didn’t hear the bad news the same as most widows would have. Finally she could do what she wanted without anyone else telling her what to do, is the way she saw it. She was still young with a pretty face and she wanted to show it off. She kept whispering â€Å"free, body and soul free† (Kate Chopin: A Re-Awakening). Mrs. Mallard started planning the days ahead of her. All of those days would be her own days to live by. As she opened the door to jump straight to all her new opportunities, there stood Mr. Mallard. Mrs. Mallard fell over, when the doctor came he said she had died of a heart disease. She enjoyed feeling independent and it when she found out it could no longer be she collapsed. Although â€Å"The Story of an Hour† didn’t have a happily ever after ending, Kate Chopin showed her true meaning of the short story by using symbolism, comparison, and assertiveness (Chopin, Kate – Introduction). When Mr. Mallard died it was symbolic for Oscar Chopin, and how Kate herself felt as a woman afterwards. After the death, the story describes Mrs. Mallard looking out the window and everything looks like there’s more freedom, which is also symbolic for herself having more freedom without her husband telling her what to do. Chopin uses comparison in her stories to show her readers what she’s been through and prove independence is important. In â€Å"The Story of an Hour†, not only did the author’s and Mrs. Mallard’s husbands die, but they have the same attitude about the situation (Kate Chopin: A Re-Awakening). Chopin uses comparison with the character and herself to show what she really means and make it easier to describe the theme. Kate Chopin is most known for her assertiveness in this particular story and without it she may not be as well known today. She spoke her feelings and true meanings through this action and that’s what led her to be so independent. Chopin knew people would frown upon this quality, but it was honesty. During the time Kate Chopin tried publishing her work, the morals were different than they are now. Her stories, to a lot of people, are very influential. Commentators have noted that â€Å"her influence on later feminist writing and consider her a major American short story writer† (Chopin, Kate – Introduction). Her work encourages people to stand up for what they believe in, regardless of what people think of them for doing so. Also to let her readers feel freedom and that everyone is equal. A handful of her short stories have the same plot and story, but they all have different meanings in which influence writers today to strive for what they believe in. After â€Å"The Awakening†, people believed that it aroused the readers. Chopin didn’t intentionally want for this to happen, but she wasn’t like most women of that time. Short story after short story, her work became more visual and exciting. Of course during her time no one liked it, but now the excitement in her stories makes one of the most important qualities. At the time, it was different from anything anyone has ever read. A woman’s freedom, which so many people took the wrong way, was a huge difference and conflict at the time (Chopin, Kate – Introduction). Many say she â€Å"broke a new ground of literature† (Powell). It’s Chopin’s inspiring excitement that arouses her readers and makes them want to come back for more. Most of what has been written about Kate Chopin is feminist in nature or is focused on women’s positions in society (Powell). The late 19th century, no women were independent. Kate Chopin took a stand and that’s all she wrote about. After her husband’s death, she feels like she has more freedom and independence. Someone not telling her what to do all the time; what she’s been wanting so badly. Her work helps women recognize the consequences of action, and helps them find individual freedom (Kate Chopin: The Awakening, The Storm, Stories, Biography). Female writers look up to her greatly because of how she was able to take a stand and speak her mind, without caring what people thought of her. She was one of the first women in her century to write outspoken fiction literature, revolting against tradition and authority (Chopin, Kate – Introduction). Chopin’s highly respected as a writer through the understanding of all the complications to get her word out for woman independence (Powell). Through her influential stories, ambition, and support of independent women, she became an inspiring American author. It may’ve took society half a century to grasp what Kate Chopin accomplished, but now she is finally known as a strong independent woman, and that’s all she wanted to be known for.

Philippine Customs History Essay

Historical records show that the Philippine Customs Service started many centuries back long before the Philippines was discovered by the eastern and western expeditionaries. The Philippines had already a flourishing trade with countries of Southeast Asia, but since money at that time was not yet the medium of exchange, people then resorted to the barter system of commodities. The rulers of the barangays were known as the â€Å"datus† or â€Å"rajahs† collected tributes from the people before they were allowed to engage in their trade. The practice of collecting tributes became part of their culture and was then observed and followed as the Customs Law of the Land. The Spanish Regime After Spain had taken full control of almost all the trades of the country, it passed three important statutes: 1.Spanish Customs Law which was similar to that of the Indies enforced in the country from 1582 to 1828. It was a concept of ad valorem levied on import and export. 2.A Tariff Board was established which drew up a tariff of fixed values for all imported articles on which ten percent (10%) ad valorem duty was uniformly collected. 3.Another Tariff Law was introduced in 1891, which established the specific duties on all imports and on certain exports and this lasted till the end of the Spanish rule in the Philippines. The American Regime When the Americans came to the Philippines, the Military Government continued to enforce the Spanish Tariff Code of 1891, which remained in effect until the Philippine Commission enacted the Tariff Revision Law of 1901. On October 24, 1900, the Philippine Commission passed Act No. 33 abolishing and changing the position of Captain of the Port to Collector of Customs in all ports of entry except the Port of Manila. The designation of the Captain of the Port in the Port of Manila was retained. When the Civil Government was established in the Philippines, the most important laws passed by the Philippine Commission were the following: 1.Tariff Revision Law of 1902 based on the theory that the laws of Spain were not as comprehensive as the American Customs Laws to conform with the existing conditions of the country. 2.Philippine Administrative Act No. 355 passed by the Philippine Commission on February 6, 1902. The full implementation of this Act, however, was considered inadequate and incomplete, so the Customs Service Act No. 355, called the Philippine Customs Service Act was passed to amend the previous laws. After several modifications and amendments, the Philippine Customs Service finally became a practical counterpart of the American Customs Service. 3.Act No. 357 reorganized the Philippine Customs Service and officially designated the Insular Collector of Customs as Collector of Customs for the Port of Manila. 4.Act No. 625 abolished the Captain of the Port for the Port of Manila. 5.Public Act No. 430 transformed the Philippine Customs Service to a Bureau of Customs and Immigration under the supervision and control of the Department of Finance and Justice. When the Department of Justice became a separate office from the Department of Finance, te Customs Service remained under the umbrella of the latter which set-up remained up to this time. The Commonwealth Government After the Commonwealth Government was established in the country, the Philippine Legislature enacted Commonwealth Act No. 613 forming the Bureau of Immigration as a separate office from the Bureau of Customs. On May 1, 1947, the Bureau of Customs has as its head the Insular Collector of Customs. He was assisted by the Deputy Insular Collector of Customs. Both officials were concurrently Collector of Customs and the Deputy Collector of Customs of the Port of Manila. The Republic Pursuant to the Executive Order No. 94 of Republic Act No. 52, the President of the Philippines reorganized the different departments, bureaus, offices and agencies of the government of the Republic of the Philippines. Consequently, the Insular Collector of Customs was changed to Collector of Customs for the Port of Manila. The reorganization took effect on July 1, 1947. In 1957, Congress enacted the Tariff and Customs Code of the Philippines known as Republic Act No. 1937, otherwise known as the â€Å"Tariff Law of the Republic of the Philippines†. This took effect on July 1, 1957. The passage of this act by the defunct Congress of the Philippines subject to the provisions of the Laurel-Langley Agreement, became the first official expression of an autonomous Philippine Tariff Policy. Before the passage of Republic Act 1937, all importations from the United States enjoyed full exemptions pursuant to the Tariff Act No. 1902 which was adopted by Republic Act No. 3 as the Tariff Laws of the Philippines. The Republic Pursuant to the Executive Order No. 94 of Republic Act No. 52, the President of the Philippines reorganized the different departments, bureaus, offices and agencies of the government of the Republic of the Philippines. Consequently, the Insular Collector of Customs was changed to Collector of Customs for the Port of Manila. The reorganization took effect on July 1, 1947. I n 1957, Congress enacted the Tariff and Customs Code of the Philippines known as Republic Act No. 1937, otherwise known as the â€Å"Tariff Law of the Republic of the Philippines†. This took effect on July 1, 1957. The passage of this act by the defunct Congress of the Philippines subject to the provisions of the Laurel-Langley Agreement, became the first official expression of an autonomous Philippine Tariff Policy. Before the passage of Republic Act 1937, all importations from the United States enjoyed full exemptions pursuant to the Tariff Act No. 1902 which was adopted by Republic Act No. 3 as the Tariff Laws of the Philippines. The Reorganization of the Bureau of Customs On February 4, 1965, the Bureau of Customs was reorganized pursuant to Customs Administrative Order No. 4-65 by authority if Sec. 550 & 551 of the Revised Administrative Code of Republic Act 4164. During the reorganization, offices under the direct supervision and control of the Commissioner were elevated to Department Level with ranks higher than Division Level. These Departments were the following: Public Relations, Personnel, Legal, Administrative Service, Budget and Finance, and the Management Improvement. Likewise, three (3) ranking Customs positions were created, namely: Assistant Commissioner for Revenue, Assistant Commissioner for Security, and Director for Operations. Later, Customs Administrative Order No. 4065 was amended abolishing the position of Assistant Commissioner for Security and creating the position of Director for Administration. In 1972, Congress passed the law revising the Tariff & Customs Code of the Philippines. However, before it can be implemented, the President of the Republic of the Philippines issued Proclamation No. 1081 on September 21, 1972 declaring Martial Law in the country. On October 27, 1972, President Ferdinand E. Marcos signed Presidential Decree No. 34 amending the Tariff & Customs Code of the Philippines. The new Code took effect on November 26, 1972 except for Section 104 thereof which became effective only on January 1, 1973. Another reorganization of the Bureau of Customs took effect on September 24, 1972, pursuant to Presidential Decree No. 1 creating six (6) Customs Services under the Office of the Commissioner and creating jurisdictional limits of twelve (12) collection districts with the Principal Ports and Sub-ports of entry under the supervision and control of the Collector of the Principal Port of Entry. As a result of this reorganization, the designation of heads of different services was called Customs Service Chiefs, and heads of offices with rank of division were designated Customs Operations Chiefs and the Head of the National Customs Police as Director. It was in this reorganizational set-up that the Directors for Administration and Operations, and the Assistant Commissioner for Revenue were abolished. In 1975, the Bureau undertook another reorganization under Presidential Decree No. 689 and the result is what you see now in the Organization Chart, except for some slight changes and modifications. On June 11, 1978, the Tariff & Customs Code was further amended, modified and supplemented by new positions to make it a responsive code in keeping with the developmental programs of the New Society. The new Code was embodied in Presidential Decree No. 1464. With the accession of the Philippines to the Customs Co-Operation Council (CCC), the Tariff & Customs Code has to be revised anew in order to align our tariff system with the CCC Nomenclature, and the result is the presently enforced Tariff & Customs Code of 1982, revised by virtue of Executive Order No. 688. This new Code also assimilated various amendments to the Customs Code under P.D. 1628 & 1980 as well as reprints of the tariff concessions under the General Agreement on Tariff Multilateral Agreement Negotiations as provided in Executive Order No. 578, series of 1980, and the tariff concessions granted to ASEAN member countries as embodied in various Executive Orders from 1978 to 1981. The last major reorganization of the Bureau took place in 1986 after the EDSA Revolution with the issuance of Executive Order No. 127 which expanded the organization umbrella of the Central Office by providing offices that will monitor and coordinate assessment and operations of the Bureau and provided for a staff of about 5,500 customs personnel. The implementation of the computerization program also necessitated the creation of a new Group to ensure its continuous development and progress. The creation of the Management Information System and Technology Group (MISTG) under a new Deputy Commissioner with 92 positions was authorized under Executive Order No. 463 dated January 9, 1998.

Nature and scope of accounting Essay

As an introduction to the course in accounting, it may be useful to define the following terms : – Accounts : These are the financial records in the organization. Every business transaction, or accounting entity, may be represented in an account by itself, e.g. wages, telephone expense, motor vehicle, Cash at bank, Investment – Book-keeping : This is the recording of the financial transactions of a business in a systematic manner, so that relevant financial data may be extracted when needed. – Accounting : This is a more comprehensive step than book-keeping. It involves the classifying, recording, compiling, reporting and interpreting the financial activities in the organization. This allows the users of the information to make informed judgement, planning and decision regarding the organization. – Accountancy : This is the procedure or the system that must be followed when recording, reporting, and interpreting the financial activities of the organization. It involves the set of principles or rules that must be observed in order to achieve an objective view of the accounting results. Accounting in the fullest sense, is therefore the interactive and integrated process of reviewing, forecasting, planning, recording, classifying, reporting , and interpreting the financial activities in the organization. This allows the custodians to make informed judgments and decisions pertaining to the performance and financial position of the organization. It also facilitate those who may have a vested interest in the business to assess their relationship and expectations from the operations. To this end accounting information should be – Relevant : to the users so as to influence their ability to make informed decision – Reliable : free from material error and bias, giving a truthful representation of the firm – Comparable: presented in a consistent manner so at to allow for reasonable comparisons – Understandable : uncomplicated, structured, and clearly presented. – Timely : provided when needed, or on time as required by law – Unqualified : not subjected to unnecessary modifications or restrictions USES OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION The accounting system in the organization generates a wealth of financial data that may be utilized by several interest groups. These include : – Management : Those who are entrusted with the day to day operations of the business must not only make informed decisions, but also set operating standards and then review the results. In order to do this, they must use the accounting system as their base. – Owners : The accounting system enables those who have an invested interest in the business to make an overview of the performance, as well to determine the results of their investment. – Investors : Others who have contributed to the business, either by way of financial assistance, supply of goods, or any other form of involvement, need to analyse the levels of profitability and risk involved in the business – Government : Assessment of the business operations by the government may be done for tax purposes, or to determine national income, or other statistical calculation. – Trade Union : Collective bargaining on the behalf of employees by the trade union can only be done beneficially if the union has a clear understanding of the financial position of the firm. DIVISIONS OF ACCOUNTING In order to satisfy the users of the accounting information, the accounting process may be sub-divided into broad categories : – Cost and Management Accounting : This aspect of accounting is concerned with the supply of information to the internal users, i,e, to the managers and the decision makers. It includes such activities as product costing, budgeting, systems operations, and accounting methods. This allow the users to formulate plans, set policies, make decisions, and control the operations in the organization. – Financial Accounting : This is the maintenance of the accounting records in a methodical manner and the preparation of summarized statements regarding the results of the business. This is of use primarily to parties external to the business, and gives an indication of the level of profitability and financial position of the business. – Special Reports : Some business operations may be financed or regulated by a parent organization. These operations must prepare and submit progressive reports to the regulatory body, indicating any factor that may have impacted on the results of its operations. These regulatory bodies included development banks, cooperative societies, venture capital assistance organizations, industry related organizations, and government agencies – Annual Return : Most firms must submit various types of tax or other statutory returns. These include NIS, NHT, HEART Fund, Income tax, Sales Tax ( GCT), Property Tax. Compliance to these is mandatory, although it is usually a complex procedure. Some organizations may engage the services of an attorney who specializes in business law or taxation. USES OF ACCOUNTING DATA Management Cost & Management Accounting Regulatory Bodies Statutory Agencies The Special Reports Accounting Annual Returns Process Financial Accounting (Certified By Public Accounting Auditor) Govt Trade Union Shareholders Investors Creditors General Public There are several areas of difference between financial and management accounting. Among these are: AREASFINANCIALMANAGEMENT Main UsersExternal parties, e.g. investors Creditors, trade union, gov’tInternal parties, e.g. managers, owners Time OrientationReview of the pastForecast of the future AccessAvailable to any partyAvailable to insiders only Restrictions Presentation FormatsStandard financial StatementsWhatever format most suitable View of the Organization Condensed view of the organization as a Detailed view of segments or activities whole RegulatoryRegulated by ruling of bodiesNo significant regulatory Restrictionssuch as IFRS, ICAJ, as well asRestrictions the Companies Act PurposeInformation disclosureDecision making and control CONCEPTS OF ACCOUNTING Certain fundamental concepts provide a rule or framework for the recording and reporting of business transactions. These may also be termed as principles, assumptions, or standards. Among them are : The Accounting or Business Entity Concept: Each business enterprise should be regarded as a separate and distinct unit from the other economic or personal affairs of the owners. Thus the information compiled by the business unit should only relate to the activities of that enterprise. The Historical Cost Concept: Resources should be maintained in their accounts at their original cost, not at the periodically revised or market value. Adjustments to the cost, e.g. depreciation, should therefore be shown in a separate account. The accumulative effect of these accounts may be determined when the balance sheet is being prepared. The Going Concern Concept: It is assumed that the business unit will continue for a lasting period during which time it will be able to fulfil its objectives. Thus, interim liquidated values are not shown when preparing the balance sheet. This assumption would not apply if the firm’s continued existence can not be established by fact, e.g. If faced with a legal injunction, anticipating liquidation, on the expiration of a contract, or in the event of a buyout or takeover. The Money Measurement Concept: Accounting transactions and the summary of their results can only be measured in monetary units. Thus, those activities or situations that are not measurable in a monetary sense would not be reflected in the accounts. These include the firm’s industrial relations, management styles, or industry position. The net value of these situations, however, may be classified as goodwill when the firm is being re- valued, or being sold as a going concern. The Accrual Concept: Revenue and expenses must be accounted for during the period when they occurred, and not necessarily when they were honoured. Thus, income is calculated from revenue and expenses incurred, not from those actually paid for. The Dual Aspects Concept: There are two aspects to every accounting transaction, one shows the gains realised and the other represents the claims that may be made against these gains. From this concept comes the double entry principle, i.e. for every debit (Dr) entry there must be a corresponding credit (Cr) entry. The Realisation Concept : Income is regarded as being earned at the point when the legal property, or the claim, in goods has passed from the seller to the buyer. This may be different from the point when the order was received, the delivery was made, or payment completed. This, however, is determined by the terms of contract. The Materiality Concept: On-going accounts are only maintained for those items or activities that by themselves will make a significant impact on the business. These are called assets or liabilities. Immaterial or complementary items or activities are written off as expense or revenue at the end of each accounting period. The Prudence Concept: Accounting systems should allow for the reporting of the minimum value of income. Thus, total expenses include non-cash items such as depreciation, bad debts, and other provisions. The Substance Over Form Concept: The benefits from, or material substance of a resource should take precedence over the legal form of ownership. Thus, the firm may be in possession of an asset that is being used in the business but which has not yet being paid for. For example, an equipment may have been bought on hire purchase or acquired by way of a lease, and as such the asset does not legally belong to the firm until it is paid for. However, the material substance of the equipment must be shown in the books, and this takes precedence over the legal form in it. The Time Interval or Periodicity Concept: The firm should prepare a set of final accounts in order to take a reading of its performance and financial standing from time to time. This is required although the business is regarded as a going concern. This periodic reading of the business allows management to exercise informed assessment and control over the affairs of the business. The Full-Disclosure Concept: Although the financial statements are concerned with the last accounting period, it should also take into consideration any future events that may have an impact on the firm’s financial position. Thus a disclosure should be made for eventualities such as a pending lawsuit, on-going negotiations for sales, disposal, acquisition or take-over, or changes in the accounting methods being used. These disclosures are usually listed as explanatory footnotes. The Objectivity Concept: The accounting transactions recorded in the firm’s books should be supported by objective evidence or by a basis of origin in fact. This includes such documentation as sales invoices, payment vouchers, cash receipts etc. Thus there should be a basis by which the transactions can be verified. This is usually required whenever an audit is being done. The Consistency Concept: The methods that are used in the recoding and reporting of accounting transactions should be unchanged over the course of the business, unless it is governed by some new rule or mode of operations. Changes result in a distortion of profit, thus objective comparison or analysis would not be allowed.

Disadvantages of science Essay

How Science and Technology Affects Human’s Life Science and technology are two things related to each other. Science is a systematic knowledge base, where a series of steps is followed in order to reliably predict the type of outcome. It is all about theories and focused on analysis. Science is the key by which man go anywhere at any time in the space. It has brought about several outstanding advantages to mankind. Technology, on the other hand, is more of an applied science. It is where tools and knowledge are used for the study of a particular science. It is all about process. What is life without science and technology? Nowadays, people can’t imagine their lives without technology. Anywhere they go and whatever they do, there are many things related to science. These are human’s inventions and innovations or various technologies surround them that provide their needs. Even in their daily activities or simple tasks, they are already using those technologies. Refrigerators, microwaves, televisions, cellular phones, laptops, digital cameras, cars, computers and lights are some technologies that human uses in their daily lives. These technologies really provide them many advantages. It is easy to think about the advantages however, for your information technology has also disadvantages. Science and Technology helps human beings make their lives easier in such a way that it helps them in every sector. Like in transportation, through cars, airplanes or trains, they can travel faster to their desired places. From inventions and innovations of great minds, robots and machines are made to help people make lesser mistakes. Because of technology, man can save his time, efforts and give him a quality to his works. Moreover, technology increases production. People can create multiple materials in a short period of time because of modern machines. Most of all, one of the most important advantages of technology is through the field of medical science or human health. Because of the inventions of technology for surgical operations and discoveries of many medicines, human’s life span will be lengthened and will save innocent lives. Science and Technology also changed human’s way of communicating. From telephones to cellular phones, then came the computers and Internets which gave them information. Through these, now they can do video conferences to their love ones at abroad or chatting their friends. Satellite communication is another important dimension of technology. Satellite TV s and satellite radios have eased the broadcasting of events across the globe. Computers can store, organize and manage huge amounts of data. They can process large amounts of information. Computers have given rise to the software industry, one of the most progressive industries of the world. Gadgets can give entertainment not only to teenagers but to everyone. In addition technology also gives assurance or for emergency use. On the other hand, with the advancement in the field of latest technology, people face many disadvantages out of the benefit of modern technology. It can harm our environment. New transportation technology causes pollution by the smoke or gas from factories and cars. Most people lost their job because companies took up automatic machines to improve their production with accuracy. Yet, the answers or discoveries that technology gave may not be always correct. These machines look inexpensive and its good to use but once there are technical problems occur in machines, it took much time to fix it and also it can be more expensive. There are also side effects of technology in our health. This can cause growth of eye disease, increase of body weight and can cause cancer because of radiation of specific technology. Science and Technology can cause people’s communication poor. According to Lauren Nelson, when communicating face to face, nonverbal behaviors provide context clues for the words we use. Unfortunately, the Wall Street Journal found that technologies like email, texting and instant messaging remove these important context clues, and can lead to misunderstandings. Sarcasm and jokes without nonverbal context cues can cause frustration. Though smiley faces with different expressions called â€Å"emoticons† are sometimes used to substitute traditional nonverbal cues, they fall far short of what face-to-face communication can provide. He also states that as more students buy cell phones, iPods, and gaming systems, technology’s impact on effective communication is becoming more pronounced. As the District Chronicles reports, teachers attempting to convey messages about lessons and textbooks find students are texting, playing, or listening to music. Not only does this mitigate the teacher’s ability to communicate lessons, but it hurts future communicative interaction between the teacher and student because of the lack of respect it conveys. The youth has also been very much addicted to gadgets that they get to spend too much time with it and creates their own world. Technology can make people lazy. Many people are already dependent and embrace this technology. Like students playing computer games instead of going to school or study. Technology also brings us privacy issues. From cell phone signal interceptions to email hacking, people are now worried about their once private information becoming public knowledge and making profit out of video scandals. Advanced technology has also created thousands of cases of cyber crimes, cheating and fraud. And most of all because of the new technology, the world may be facing terrorists threat and all of us are afraid of nuclear war. If people of the world use these inventions and innovations in a right way, we are all going to be benefited out of these but if the motive of a human being is not positive, surely they will face the technology’s disadvantages.

Christian and Islamic art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Christian and Islamic art - Essay Example Though the traditions that make up the techniques and philosophy of Islamic artworks are derived from Islamic ideas, works categorised as Islamic art are not necessarily religious in their use or significance; it is often the case that the themes of these works are entirely secular in nature. CHRISTIAN ART is art that spans many segments of Christianity. For each religious sect, art mediums, style, and representations change; however, the unifying theme is ultimately the representation of the life and times of Jesus Christ and in some cases the Old Testament. Much of the art surviving from Europe after the fall of the Roman empire is Christian art. The religious hierarchy of the Catholic Church funded and supported production of sacred art. As a stable Western European society emerged during the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church led the way in terms of art, using its resources to commission paintings and sculptures. Christian art is found in architecture, principally in the form of churches, cathedrals, monasteries, tombs and manuscripts. Over the centuries, Christian art has had three primary purposes: Depicting the actual events of the Bible, depicting the events of the Christian life or communicating the message of Scripture in a visual form. Today’s Christian art is denoted by a combination of Biblical events and Scriptural truth. Traditional Christian art mediums include architecture, iconography, sculpture, wood carving, manuscript miniature, stained glass and oil on canvas. the Quran, or the Muslim holy book, which is written in Arabic. Another important characteristic is the covering of surfaces with patterns composed of geometric or vegetal elements. Figural imagery is also used widely in manuscript illustrations, though not in a religious context. Robert Irwin says optics, perspective, colour and geometry shed light on Islamic art, so also did astronomy and astrology. In most manuscript

Assignment #2 Statistics Project Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Assignment #2 - Statistics Project Example It depicts the representation of distinct graphical illustration of the underlying positive kurtosis. The dataset is mainly linked to the left of the mean of satisfaction depicting a general level of democracy among the populace (Goodwin, 189-239). The ordinal scales are constantly discrete in nature and is applicable to existing model of corresponding data analysis. Nominal variable are number of employees and corresponding level of democracy. The stage of democracies of the population is adversely skewed as compared to the underlying interval variable. This scatter plot offers a platform for representation of the underlying set of dataset and commonly derived prior to analysis of the linear correlation coefficient of the prevailing variants data (Goodwin, 189-239). The level of democracy is inversely proportionate to the prevailing number of the underlying workers in the company. The relationship is adversely related concerning extends of democracy. The 95% confidence level around the mean for the interval variable is 5.466553063. The upper limit of 5.466553063+ 0.095678992 whilst the lower limit is 5.466553063- 0.095678992 thus all the existing 95% contains the mean Bar chary helps in summarization of the prevailing categorical data in the exploratory data assessment of data examination to exhibit fundamental distribution of the data convenient format. This mainly represents the underlying ordinal and corresponding nominal data. Confidence 95percentage level encompasses the underlying the existing populace. The standard deviation of democracy is 206.5344828. The skewness and kurtosis of the dataset is -0.608361087 and 1.131668626

The Role of Natural Capital in the Week versus Strong Sustainability Essay

The Role of Natural Capital in the Week versus Strong Sustainability Debate - Essay Example The issue of sustainability is therefore subject to both traditional and contemporary arguments, the underlying interest being to define the natural world in the view of both arguments. The weak versus strong sustainability debate emanates from both environmental and economic concerns. A sustainable development is one that is rooted on the strongholds of both the economy and the environmental. In this regard, two principle concepts emerge. These are: natural and manufactured capital. The debate surrounding these two concepts gives rise to weak versus strong sustainability debate, with the role of natural capital being the focal point in the debate. The defining variables of both weak and strong sustainability are essential to consider in the evaluation of the role of natural capital in the context of the two. Sustainable development is defined as that development that provides the potential and ability to meet present needs without jeopardising the potential and ability of future gen erations to meet their own needs (Hartwick, 2007, p.972-974). In other words, the needs of both present and future generations are central to the achievement of sustainable development. It is important to note that the needs referred to are cultural, social, economic and political in nature. ... The process to sustainable development is not a smooth process. There are biases associated with sustainable development, each of which influences the process in one way or another. These biases include: tragedy of the commons, common costs, private profits, uncertainty, future discounting among others (Pearce, 2006, p.85-101). A number of phenomena are presented by the highlighted biases. Common ownership of resources is evident, exacerbating the need to grab resources within the shortest time possible. Industrial pollution is inevitable in land, air and water. Furthermore, the cost of pollution is transferred to the society, while profits are reaped by privately owned enterprises. The process of sustainable development is therefore highly characterized by externalities, both positive and negative. Uncertainty continues to encompass economic and environmental undertakings prior to sustainable development. Global warming around the world remains evident, but its extent is uncertain. There are underlying ecological and/or economic disasters that need to be accounted for in sustainable development process. It is also argued that sustainable development is primarily concerned with the future. While this is true, the present must be set in a way that aids concern for the future. The availability of resources today does not guarantee the same availability in future. Utilization and conservation of resources for the present and future generations yields the weak versus strong sustainability debate, with emphasis on natural capital today and in future. Natural capital is defined as the capacity of the environment to provide goods and services for use by the population (Pezzey, 2009, p.26). The population in this case